Major -15 Assignment

 

Maharani shree Nandkuvarba mahila arts & commerce College 

Name : Gohil Janaviba Sahadev Singh 

Year: T.Y.B.A ( English)

sem:-6

⁠credit : 4

Subject: English 

Paper name: foundation of literary criticism 

Professor name: shivani mam 

 ✿ Class assignment 

☞ Topic:-1  poetic 

                        - by Aristotle 

(Concept of tragedy)

Aristotle’s Poetics is one of the earliest and most important works of literary criticism. Written in the 4th century BCE, it mainly deals with the nature and function of tragedy. Aristotle studied the Greek tragedies of playwrights like Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus and tried to analyze what makes tragedy powerful and effective. His theory of tragedy has influenced Western drama and criticism for centuries.

According to Aristotle, tragedy is the highest form of poetry because it represents serious human actions and produces a deep emotional effect on the audience.

◉ Aristotle’s Definition of Tragedy

Aristotle defines tragedy as:

“Tragedy is the imitation (mimesis) of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in embellished language; in the form of action, not narration; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation (catharsis) of these emotions.”

This definition contains all the essential elements of tragedy.

- Simple Meaning of the Definition:

Imitation (Mimesis): Tragedy imitates real human actions and experiences.

Serious Action: It deals with important themes like fate, suffering, and moral conflict.

Complete: It has a proper beginning, middle, and end.

Certain Magnitude: It is of suitable length and importance.

Embellished Language: It uses poetic and artistic language.

Dramatic Form: It is presented through action and dialogue, not narration.

Catharsis: It creates feelings of pity and fear in the audience and purifies these emotions.

- This definition contains all the essential elements of tragedy.

1. Tragedy as Imitation (Mimesis)

Aristotle believes that literature is an imitation of life. Tragedy imitates human actions, especially serious and meaningful actions. It does not simply copy reality but represents life in an artistic and universal way. Through imitation, tragedy shows human suffering, moral conflict, and the consequences of actions.

2. Serious, Complete, and of Certain Magnitude

(a) Serious Action

The action in tragedy must deal with important issues such as fate, destiny, suffering, moral choice, and human weakness.

(b) Complete Action

A tragedy must have a proper structure:

Beginning

Middle

End

The events must be logically connected.

(c) Certain Magnitude

The story should be neither too short nor too long. It must be long enough to develop events properly and create emotional impact.

3. The Six Elements of Tragedy

Aristotle divides tragedy into six elements. They are arranged in order of importance:

1. Plot (Mythos) – The Soul of Tragedy

Plot is the most important element. According to Aristotle, tragedy is an imitation of action, not of persons. Therefore, plot is more important than character.

A good plot must have:

• Unity of Action – One main story without unnecessary subplots.

• Peripeteia (Reversal) – A sudden change from good fortune to bad fortune.

• Anagnorisis (Recognition) – A moment of realization or discovery.

• Hamartia (Tragic Flaw) – An error in judgment or weakness of the hero.

For example, in Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, Oedipus unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother. His realization (anagnorisis) and downfall create powerful emotional impact.

Aristotle prefers a complex plot that includes both reversal and recognition.

2. Character (Ethos)

Character is the second most important element. The tragic hero should:

• Be noble or of high social status.

• Be neither completely good nor completely evil.

• Have a tragic flaw (hamartia).

• Experience downfall due to error, not wickedness.

The hero’s fall should make the audience feel pity and fear.

3. Thought (Dianoia)

Thought refers to the ideas, themes, and moral messages expressed in the tragedy. It includes philosophical reflections and arguments presented by characters.

4. Diction (Lexis)

Diction means the language and style used in the play. Aristotle emphasizes poetic and elevated language. The language must be appropriate to the characters and situation.

5. Song (Melody)

Music and chorus were essential parts of Greek tragedy. Song enhances emotional intensity and contributes to the beauty of the play.

6. Spectacle (Opsis)

Spectacle includes scenery, costumes, and visual effects. Aristotle considers it the least important element because it depends more on stage performance than literary art.

4. The Tragic Hero

The tragic hero is central to Aristotle’s theory. The hero should be a person of high rank, such as a king or nobleman, whose fall affects society. However, his downfall must result from hamartia (an error in judgment), not from evil intention.

This makes the tragedy realistic and emotionally powerful. The audience identifies with the hero and feels sympathy.

5. Catharsis – The Purpose of Tragedy

Catharsis is one of Aristotle’s most important concepts. It means purification or purgation of emotions. Through watching tragic events, the audience experiences pity and fear.

• Pity for the suffering hero.

• Fear that such suffering could happen to anyone.

By experiencing these emotions, the audience feels emotionally purified and relieved. This emotional cleansing is the main aim of tragedy.

6. Unity in Tragedy

Aristotle emphasizes the Unity of Action. Later critics developed this into three unities:

• Unity of Action

• Unity of Time

• Unity of Place

However, Aristotle mainly focused on unity of action.

The Function of Tragedy

The main function of tragedy is catharsis, which means the purification of emotions. Tragedy arouses feelings of pity and fear in the audience through the suffering of the tragic hero. By experiencing these emotions, the audience feels emotional relief and moral understanding.

Thus, tragedy not only entertains but also purifies emotions and teaches important lessons about life and human nature.

◉ Summary of Tragedy in Poetics by Aristotle

Aristotle explains tragedy as a serious imitation of human action presented in dramatic form. It deals with important themes such as fate, suffering, and moral conflict. A tragedy must have a complete structure with a beginning, middle, and end, and it should be of suitable length to create emotional impact.

According to Aristotle, plot is the most important element of tragedy. A good tragic plot includes reversal (peripeteia), recognition (anagnorisis), and a tragic flaw (hamartia) in the hero. The tragic hero is usually a noble person who falls from prosperity to misery because of an error in judgment, not because of pure evil.

The main purpose of tragedy is catharsis. By watching the suffering of the hero, the audience feels pity and fear, and through these emotions, they experience emotional purification or relief.

In short, Aristotle’s concept of tragedy focuses on serious action, a well-structured plot, a tragic hero with a flaw, and the emotional effect of catharsis on the audience.

◉ Conclusion 

In conclusion, Aristotle’s concept of tragedy presents it as a serious and artistic imitation of human action that reveals deep truths about life, fate, and human weakness. He emphasizes that plot is the soul of tragedy and that a well-structured story with a tragic hero, reversal, recognition, and hamartia creates powerful emotional impact.

The ultimate aim of tragedy, according to Aristotle, is catharsis—the purification of pity and fear in the audience. Through the suffering of the hero, viewers gain emotional relief and moral understanding.

Thus, Aristotle’s theory of tragedy remains one of the most important foundations of literary criticism, influencing drama and dramatic theory even in the modern age.

 ⁠✿Home assignment 

☞ Topic:-2  tradition and individual telent 

              - By T.s Elliot 

◉ About the author 

T. S. Eliot (1888–1965) was a major Modernist poet and literary critic. Born in America and later becoming a British citizen, he played a key role in shaping twentieth-century literature.

He is famous for poems like The Waste Land and for critical essays such as Tradition and the Individual Talent. Eliot introduced important ideas like tradition and impersonality in poetry.

He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948 for his great contribution to poetry and criticism.

◉ Introduction

Tradition and the Individual Talent (1919) is one of the most influential essays in modern literary criticism. Written by T. S. Eliot, a major modernist poet and critic, this essay reshaped the way critics and readers understand poetry and the role of the poet. In this work, Eliot challenges the Romantic belief that poetry is a direct expression of personal feelings. Instead, he presents a new theory that emphasizes the importance of tradition and the impersonal nature of poetry.

The essay mainly discusses three central ideas:

1. The meaning of tradition

2. The historical sense

3. The theory of impersonality

~ Rethinking the Idea of Tradition

Before Eliot, tradition was often understood as blindly following past writers or copying classical styles. Eliot gives the word “tradition” a deeper and more dynamic meaning.

According to him, tradition cannot be inherited automatically. It must be obtained through hard work, study, and awareness. A true poet must develop knowledge of the entire literary past—from ancient writers to contemporary ones. Tradition is not limited to one country or time; it includes the whole of European literature and beyond.

Eliot argues that literature forms a continuous order. When a new work of art is created, it does not stand alone. Instead, it becomes part of this existing literary tradition and slightly changes the whole order. In other words, the past influences the present, and the present also reshapes the past.

This idea shows that tradition is not static; it is living and evolving.

~ The Historical Sense

One of the most important concepts introduced in the essay is the “historical sense.” Eliot defines it as a perception of the pastness of the past and its presence.

The historical sense means:

Understanding that past literature still exists and influences modern writing.

Feeling that the literature of all ages forms a unified whole.

Writing with awareness of both present and past.

For Eliot, a mature poet writes not only with his own generation in mind but also with consciousness of the entire literary tradition. This awareness gives depth and richness to poetry.

Thus, the individual talent of the poet becomes meaningful only when connected with tradition.

~ The Theory of Impersonality

Another revolutionary idea in the essay is Eliot’s theory of impersonality.

Eliot strongly opposes the Romantic idea (associated with poets like Wordsworth) that poetry is “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings.” Instead, he argues:

“Poetry is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality.”

This does not mean the poet has no emotions. Rather, it means that the poet’s personal feelings should not dominate the poem. The poet must transform personal emotions into universal artistic experience.

The poet becomes a medium, not the main focus of the poem.

~ The Chemical Analogy

To explain impersonality, Eliot uses a scientific example. He compares the poet’s mind to a piece of platinum used in a chemical reaction. When oxygen and sulfur dioxide combine in the presence of platinum, they form sulfuric acid. The platinum helps in the reaction but does not change itself.

Similarly:

The poet’s mind brings together various emotions and experiences.

These emotions combine to form poetry.

The poet remains separate and unaffected personally.

This analogy clearly shows that poetry is a process of transformation, not personal confession.

~ Emotion vs. Artistic Creation

Eliot also distinguishes between personal emotion and poetic emotion. A poet may use emotions that he has not personally experienced. What matters is not sincerity but artistic structure and arrangement.

Poetry is created by combining different feelings into a new artistic whole. Therefore, great poetry is not about expressing the poet’s life story but about creating something universal.

~ Individual Talent and Its Role

Although Eliot emphasizes tradition, he does not deny individual creativity. Instead, he says that true originality comes from understanding and absorbing tradition.

The poet’s individual talent shines when he:

Understands literary history

Adds something new to it

Maintains artistic discipline

Thus, tradition and individual talent are not opposites. They depend on each other.

~ Critical Significance of the Essay

This essay marked a major shift in literary criticism. It laid the foundation for New Criticism and modern literary theory. Eliot’s ideas encouraged critics to focus more on the text itself rather than the author’s personal life.

His emphasis on structure, objectivity, and impersonality greatly influenced twentieth-century literature.

Critical Analysis of Tradition and the Individual Talent

by T. S. Eliot

Tradition and the Individual Talent is a landmark essay in modern literary criticism. In this essay, T. S. Eliot rejects the Romantic idea that poetry is the expression of personal emotions. Instead, he argues that poetry is an impersonal art that depends on tradition and disciplined craftsmanship.

One of the strengths of the essay is Eliot’s new definition of tradition. He presents tradition as a living and dynamic force that connects past and present literature. His concept of the “historical sense” encourages poets to develop deep awareness of literary history. This idea broadened the understanding of originality in literature.

Another important contribution is his theory of impersonality. Eliot’s chemical analogy clearly explains how the poet transforms personal emotions into universal art. This shifted criticism from focusing on the author’s life to focusing on the text itself.

However, some critics argue that Eliot’s theory ignores the importance of personal experience and social context in literature. Complete impersonality may not always be possible in creative writing.

In conclusion, despite some limitations, the essay remains highly influential. It changed the direction of modern criticism and established Eliot as one of the most important literary theorists of the twentieth century.

◉ Conclusion

In Tradition and the Individual Talent, T. S. Eliot presents a powerful and original theory of poetry. He redefines tradition as a living and dynamic force and insists that a poet must develop historical awareness. At the same time, he introduces the theory of impersonality, arguing that poetry is not self-expression but artistic transformation.

By balancing tradition and individual creativity, Eliot shows that great literature is both rooted in the past and innovative in the present. This essay remains one of the most important works in modern literary criticism and continues to influence writers, critics, and students around the world.

✿Essay 

☞⁠ Topic:-3  purpose and function - why We analyse and evaluate the literature 

Literature is one of the most powerful expressions of human thought, emotion, and imagination. It reflects life, society, culture, history, and human psychology. However, simply reading literature for pleasure is not enough to fully understand its richness. We analyse and evaluate literature to explore its deeper meanings, artistic qualities, and lasting value. Literary analysis and evaluation help us move from passive reading to active and critical understanding.

1. To Discover Deeper Meaning

Literary works often contain multiple layers of meaning. A poem, novel, or play may appear simple on the surface, but it usually carries symbolic, philosophical, and emotional depth. Through analysis, we explore:

• Hidden themes

• Symbols and imagery

• Moral and philosophical ideas

• Underlying messages

For example, a story about a family conflict may actually reflect larger issues such as social injustice or psychological struggle. Analysis helps uncover these deeper interpretations.

2. To Appreciate Artistic Craftsmanship

Literature is an art form. Writers carefully choose words, structure, tone, and style to create specific effects. By analysing literature, we understand how:

• Imagery creates vivid pictures

• Metaphors and symbols convey complex ideas

• Irony produces dramatic effect

• Plot structure builds tension

• Characterization reveals personality

Evaluation allows us to judge how effectively these techniques are used. It increases our appreciation of the writer’s creativity and skill.

3. To Develop Critical Thinking Skills

Literary analysis encourages independent thinking. Instead of accepting ideas blindly, we question:

• What is the author trying to say?

• Is the argument convincing?

• Are the characters realistic?

• Does the ending satisfy the theme?

This process strengthens reasoning, interpretation, and analytical abilities. These skills are useful not only in literature but also in real-life decision-making.

4. To Understand Human Nature

Literature explores universal human emotions such as love, jealousy, ambition, fear, hope, and suffering. By analysing characters and situations, we gain insight into:

• Human behavior

• Psychological conflicts

• Moral dilemmas

• Emotional struggles

This understanding increases empathy and emotional intelligence.

5. To Understand Society and Culture

Literature reflects the time and society in which it is written. Through analysis, we learn about:

• Historical events

• Cultural traditions

• Social values

• Political conditions

For example, many literary works reveal social inequality, gender roles, colonial struggles, or cultural identity. Evaluating literature helps us understand how society shapes art and how art influences society.

6. To Judge Literary Value and Quality

Evaluation helps us determine whether a literary work is successful and meaningful. We ask:

• Is the theme relevant and powerful?

• Are the characters well-developed?

• Is the structure logical and effective?

• Does the work create emotional impact?

Through evaluation, we decide whether a work deserves lasting recognition and importance.

7. To Enrich Personal Growth

Literature expands imagination and broadens perspectives. When we analyse and evaluate literature, we engage deeply with ideas that challenge our beliefs and expand our worldview. It makes us more thoughtful, sensitive, and open-minded individuals.

Conclusion

Analysing and evaluating literature is essential because it transforms simple reading into meaningful understanding. It helps us discover deeper meanings, appreciate artistic techniques, develop critical thinking, understand society, and connect with human experiences. Literature analysis is not merely an academic exercise; it is a process that enriches our intellectual, emotional, and moral growth. Through careful study and evaluation, literature becomes a powerful tool for self-awareness and lifelong learning.

◉ References 

1. Poetics by Aristotle

Poetics – Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by S. H. Butcher. New York: Dover Publications, 1997.

2. Tradition and the Individual Talent by T. S. Eliot

Tradition and the Individual Talent – T. S. Eliot. “Tradition and the Individual Talent.” First published in The Egoist, 1919.

3. Purpose and Function of Literature

W. H. Hudson. An Introduction to the Study of Literature. London: George G. Harrap & Co., 1910.

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